Traité pratique de la fabrication des cuirs et du travail des peaux par Villon (1889)

Villon, A.-M., Traité pratique de la fabrication des cuirs et du travail des peaux: tannage, corroyage, hongroyage, mégisserie, chamoiserie, parcheminerie, cuirs vernis, maroquins, fourrures, courroies, selles, équipements militaires, harnais, théorie du tannage, statistique des cuirs et des peaux, Paris, Librairie Polytechnique (1889).

URL (Internet Archive/ Getty Research Institute)

Textes sur cuir et peau dans l'oeuvre L'alun de Méditerranée (2005)

The book L’alun de Méditerranée, edited by Philippe Borgard, Jean-Pierre Brun and Maurice Picon, published in 2005 by the Centre Jean Bérard, was recently made available on line through OpenEdition Books. Some of the texts describe the use of alum to preserve animal skins (tawing, mégissage, hongroyage, concia). The authors and the titles are as follows:

- Cheryl Porter,
“The use of Alum in the preparation of tawed skin for book covers in the 11th – 15th centuries: advantages and disadvantages for the book structure”, pp. 293–298.
URL

- Claire Chahine,
“L’utilisation de l’alun dans la transformation de la peau en cuir”, pp. 299–309.
URL

- Eva Halasz Csiba,
"Le cuir de Hongrie en France entre les XIVe et XVIIIe siècles: Histoire et problématique d’un transfert technique basé sur l’usage de l’alun", pp. 311-322.
URL

- Fulvia Lo Schiavo,
"La concia delle pelli nella Sardegna nuragica: un problema aperto", pp. 343-352.
URL
 

"Unmasking the measles-like parchment discoloration: molecular and microanalytical approach” by Piñar et al (2015)

Piñar, Guadalupe; Sterflinger, Katja; Pinzari, Flavia, “Unmasking the measles-like parchment discoloration: molecular and microanalytical approach”, Environmental Microbiology 17(2) (2015) 427–443.

DOI:10.1111/1462-2920.12471 / PDF

Abstract:

Many ancient parchments are defaced by red or purple maculae associated with localized destruction of collagen fibres. Although the main characteristics of this damage were present in most of the manuscripts analysed by many authors, no common microbial or fungal denominator has been found so far, and little or no correspondence between the microbial or fungal species isolated from materials could be addressed. In this study, culture-independent molecular methods and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) were used to identify fungal and bacterial communities on parchments affected by the purple stains. Protocols for c extraction and nucleic-acid-based strategies were selected for assays examining the community structure of fungi and bacteria on biodeteriorated parchment. Both SEM and molecular analysis detected the presence of bacterial and fungal cells in the damaged areas. Halophilic, halotolerant proteolytic bacterial species were selected by the saline environment provided by the parchment samples. As common microbial denominators, members of the Actinobacteria, mainly Saccharopolyspora spp. and species of Aspergillus, were detected in all investigated cases. It is proposed that a relationship exists between the phenomenon of purple spots on ancient parchments and that of the ‘red heat’ phenomenon, known to be present in some products manufactured with marine salt.

“Les chinoiseries dans les cuirs dorés des Pays-Bas du Sud” par Donders (2009)

Donders, Pascal; “Les chinoiseries dans les cuirs dorés des Pays-Bas du Sud”, in Jacques Marx e Brigitte D’Hainaut-Zveny (eds.), Etudes sur le XVIIIe siècle: Formes et figures du goût chinois dans les anciens Pays-Bas, vol. XXXVII, Bruxelles, Editions de Université de Bruxelles (2009) 215-220.

PDF

"Expandable polyester hinges for parchment mounting..." by Duqueyroix et al (2015)

Duqueyroix, Nadège; Robinet, Laurianne; Barbe, Coralie, “Expandable polyester hinges for parchment mounting performance in fluctuating environmental conditions”, Journal of Paper Conservation 16(1) (2015) 18–28.

DOI:10.1179/1868086015Z.0000000002 (Maney Online)

Abstract:

The high hygroscopicity and heterogeneity of parchment make it particularly sensitive to fluctuating environmental conditions. Due to this, the final housing of an artwork on parchment, including mounting, should aim to mitigate the impact of the fluctuations on the object. The conservation of two navigation maps painted on parchment from the Musée national de la Marine, Paris raised the question of finding an appropriate mounting method. Flexible mounting techniques that adapt to the movement of parchment have been developed by conservators in the past, but their behaviour and efficiency in a fluctuating environment have not been observed or tested. This study focuses on the expandable polyester hinges method developed at the Victoria and Albert Museum and evaluates the safety and performance of this mounting technique in fluctuating environmental conditions. We explore an alternative way of manufacturing reproducible hinges using laser cutting.

The elongation capacity and breaking point of the hinge are assessed. Mounted and unmounted parchment samples are exposed to different levels of relative humidity (RH) (from 9 to 75%), and their dimensions and distortions are recorded and compared. Mounting with expandable polyester hinges maintains the parchment in a reasonably flat condition and prevents the appearance of distortions. At 9% RH, it even seems to restrain the dimensional variations of the parchment. We observe that the more hinges are used for mounting, the more flat the parchment remains. We successfully apply this mounting technique to the two navigation maps. The study demonstrates that the expandable polyester hinge method is safe and efficient in mitigating the impact of humidity fluctuations on parchment.

“Red stains on archaeological leather..." by Koochakzaei & Achachluei (2015)

Koochakzaei, Alireza; Achachluei, Mohsen Mohammadi; “Red stains on archaeological leather: degradation characteristics of a shoe from the 11th–13th centuries (Seljuk period, Iran)”, Journal of the American Institute for Conservation 54(1) (2015) 45–56.

DOI: 10.1179/1945233014Y.0000000033 (Maney Online, restricted access)

Abstract:

In 2006 several valuable leather objects were found during archaeological excavation of Ghalee-Kooh-i Ghaen (a historic stronghold from the Seljuk period, 11th–13th centuries) in the South Khorasan province of Iran. When examined after 5 years, there were red stains on the remnants of a shoe with poor strength and powdery surface similar to red rot decay. Since red rot is more common in manufactured leathers from the mid-19th century, the purpose of this research was to clarify the structural features and degradation factors responsible for red stains on the shoe. Chemical spot tests, isolation and identification of fungi, pH measurements, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy, and energy dispersive x-ray spectroscopy were used to achieve these aims. These measurement results corresponded to lime depilation, tanning with alum and vegetable tannins, and the possible use of CuSO₄ as a preservative of skin in leather-making process. Cladosporium sp. and Penicillium sp. were isolated from the shoe, but Trichophyton sp. was characterized as the main biodeterioration factor. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and pH measurements indicated hydrolysis and acidic degradation of the leather. The characteristics of the red stains were similar to those exhibited by red rot. Therefore, archaeological leathers tanned with alum and vegetable tannins may be exposed to acidic degradation like red rot decay.

“Analytical techniques used for the characterization and authentification of six ancient religious manuscripts (XVIII–XIX centuries)” by Vornicu et al (2015)

Vornicu, Nicoleta; Deselnicu, Viorica; Bibire, Cristina; Ivanov, Daniela; Doroftei, Florica; “Analytical techniques used for the characterization and authentification of six ancient religious manuscripts (XVIII–XIX centuries)”, Microscopy Research and Technique 78(1) (2015) 70–84.

DOI: 10.1002/jemt.22447 (Wiley Online Library)

Abstract:

This article presents the experimental results of a research on six manuscripts (three of the XVIII century and three of XIX century) belonging collection of old religious books to the Moldovan Metropolitan Church of Romania. Non-invasive techniques (optical microscopy [OM], scanning electron microscopy/energy dispersive X-ray system, X-ray fluorescence analysis, shrinkage temperature, and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy/attentuated total reflectance) provided information on the degree of degradation and identification of the leather bookbinding type. Moreover, visual assessment and OM revealed the extent of the surface degradation (wane, biological attack, change color, etc.). The degradation extent of the skin bindings was determined on the 12 samples. The insight on the mechanism of degradation was accomplished by analyzing the deterioration of collagen fibers in terms of shrinkage temperature and chemical modifications induced by oxidative and hydrolytic processes. Shrinkage temperature values were lower compared with the literature data for collagen, indicating that the leather bookbinding suffered intrinsic damage. Morphological analysis was accomplished by microscopy and allowed the identification of skin type and provided information about its processing technique. Mineral elements were identified for leather composition and contributed to the information regarding the origin and the extent of degradation of the leather bookbinding, of the studied manuscripts. The analyzed results were useful in determining the state of preservation and were able to provide an increased efficiency of further restoration. The correlation of the obtained data brought new contributions to the knowledge of the leather covers for the book technique in the XVIII and XIX centuries in monastic workshops of Eastern Europe.

Museu de l'Art de la Pell, Vic (España)

Museu de l'Art de la Pell (MAP)
http://www.museuartpellvic.cat/

El MAP acull una magnífica col·lecció d’objectes elaborats amb pell. Les peces de gran riquesa artística, mostren una gran varietat de tècniques del treball de la pell (gravat, ferratjat, gofrat, calat, repujat, emmotllat, brodat, etc). Destaquen les realitzades amb la tècnica del guadamassil (pell de moltó daurada i policromada) utilitzada per a la confecció de revestiments murals, frontals d’altar, paravents, etc… També cal remarcar l’aplicació del cordovà (pell de cabra de gran qualitat) en el recobriment d’arquetes i caixes.

“Couros Dourados / Guadamecis dos Países Baixos em Portugal (Séculos XVII e XVIII)” por Pereira (2015)

Pereira, Franklin; “Couros Dourados / Guadamecis dos Países Baixos em Portugal (Séculos XVII e XVIII)”, Al-Madan Online 19(2) (II^a Série) (2015) pp. 117–132.
URL (Issuu)

Resumo:

Nos séculos XVII e XVIII, Portugal recebeu guadamecis relevados por prensa provenientes dos Países Baixos. Estes rectângulos de “couros dourados” em estilo barroco e rococó foram utilizados em frontais de altar, estofos e biombos, e encontram-se espalhados por colecções particulares, igrejas e museus. O autor apresenta estudo comparado dos modelos conhecidos nessa técnica ornamental em couro. Considera ainda algumas imitações e as influências estéticas em estofos em couro lavrado executados em Portugal.

Abstract:
During the 17th and 18th centuries, Portugal received machine-pressed gilt leather (guadamecis) from the Netherlands. These rectangles in Baroque and Rococo style were used on altar fronts, upholstery and screens. They can be found in private collections, churches and museums. The author presents a comparative study of the known models of this leather decoration technique. He also refers to some imitations and to the aesthetical influences on leather upholstery made in Portugal.

"Species identification of archaeological skin objects from Danish bogs" by Brandt et al (2014)

Brandt, Luise Ørsted; Schmidt, Anne Lisbeth; Mannering, Ulla; Sarret, Mathilde; Kelstrup, Christian D.; Olsen, Jesper V.; et al., “Species Identification of Archaeological Skin Objects from Danish Bogs: Comparison between Mass Spectrometry-Based Peptide Sequencing and Microscopy-Based Methods”, PLoS ONE 9(9) (2014) p. e106875.

DOI:10.1371/journal.pone.0106875

Abstract:

Denmark has an extraordinarily large and well-preserved collection of archaeological skin garments found in peat bogs, dated to approximately 920 BC – AD 775. These objects provide not only the possibility to study prehistoric skin costume and technologies, but also to investigate the animal species used for the production of skin garments. Until recently, species identification of archaeological skin was primarily performed by light and scanning electron microscopy or the analysis of ancient DNA. However, the efficacy of these methods can be limited due to the harsh, mostly acidic environment of peat bogs leading to morphological and molecular degradation within the samples. We compared species assignment results of twelve archaeological skin samples from Danish bogs using Mass Spectrometry (MS)-based peptide sequencing, against results obtained using light and scanning electron microscopy. While it was difficult to obtain reliable results using microscopy, MS enabled the identification of several species-diagnostic peptides, mostly from collagen and keratins, allowing confident species discrimination even among taxonomically close organisms, such as sheep and goat. Unlike previous MS-based methods, mostly relying on peptide fingerprinting, the shotgun sequencing approach we describe aims to identify the complete extracted ancient proteome, without preselected specific targets. As an example, we report the identification, in one of the samples, of two peptides uniquely assigned to bovine foetal haemoglobin, indicating the production of skin from a calf slaughtered within the first months of its life. We conclude that MS-based peptide sequencing is a reliable method for species identification of samples from bogs. The mass spectrometry proteomics data were deposited in the ProteomeXchange Consortium with the dataset identifier PXD001029.

Leather and parchment communications at CRCC50 International Conference, Paris (2013)

"Cultural heritage conservation science and sustainable development: experience, research, innovation", International conference in the frame of the 50th anniversary of the Centre de Recherche sur la Conservation des Collections - CRCC50, held at Paris, 23-25 October 2013

Oral communications on leather and parchment:
- Claire Chahine
"Le cuir: enjeux pour la conservation et l'environnement"
Video presentation (URL)

- Elena Badea
"Identification of environmentally sensitive archival parchment for lower energy storage"
Video presentation (URL)

“La préparation de la peau du renne chez les Lapons de Kautokeino” par Roué et Delaporte (1978)

Roué, Michèle; Delaporte, Yves; “La préparation de la peau du renne chez les Lapons de Kautokeino”, Journal d’agriculture traditionnelle et de botanique appliquée 25(4) (1978), pp. 219–244.
URL / PDF (Persée)

A text-book of tanning by Procter (1885)

Procter, H. R.; A text-book of tanning: a treatise on the conversion of skins into leather, both practical and theoretical, London, Strand (1885).

URL / PDF (Internet Archive/Getty Research Institute)

COLLAGE Project website

COLLAGE

Intelligent system for the analysis and diagnosis of collagen based artefacts

Website

COLLAGE is a Romanian Joint Applied Research Project (Project No. 224/2012) carried out in the PN-II-PT-PCCA Programme and funded by the Executive Unit for Financing Higher Education, Research, Development and Innovation (UEFISCDI). The project is aiming at developing and modify existing techniques for the analysis of collagen-based historical materials and objects to achieve both high accuracy and micro- or non-invasivity characteristics requested in the evaluation of cultural heritage.

Skin Clothing from the North, edited by Schmidt & Pedersen (2010)

Anne Lisbeth Schmidt and Karen Brynjolf Pedersen (ed.); Skin Clothing from the North, Abstracts from the seminar held at the National Museum of Denmark, November 26-27, 2009, Copenhagen, National Museum of Denmark (2010)

PDF

A brief description about the "Skin Clothing from the North" Project (2009-2012) can be read here.

"All that glitters: conservation of a gilt leather chasuble" by Smith (2014)

Smith, Katy; “All that Glitters: Conservation of a Gilt Leather Chasuble”, V&A Conservation Journal 62 (2014)

URL

"A 15th-century Flemish enclosed garden in cuir bouilli. Production, degradation and conservation issues of a small painting on leather" by Watteeuw & Van Bos (2014)

Watteeuw, L.; Van Bos, M.; "A 15th-century Flemish enclosed garden in cuir bouilli. Production, degradation and conservation issues of a small painting on leather", in J. Bridgland (ed.), ICOM-CC 17th Triennial Conference Preprints, Melbourne, 15–19 September 2014, art. 0703, Paris, International Council of Museums (2014)

PDF (Lirias)

Abstract:
An early 15th-century figurative cuir bouilli coffret lid, with remains of original polychromy, belonging to the town museum in Nivelles (Belgium), was studied and conserved in 2013. Cuir bouilli is the medieval Norman-French term for ‘boiled leather’. The technique was widespread in Flanders and Paris in the High Middle Ages. The scene depicted is an ‘enclosed garden’ with the Virgin and Child. The cuir bouilli artefact has been severely damaged by environmental conditions and previous restorations. There are large lacunas in the deformed and hardened leather support, as well as in the pictorial layers. This paper explores the historical context of the artefact, the production of the material, its use and conservation history. Results of reflectance topographic imaging (RTI) are followed by physicochemical analyses and the treatment protocol to stabilise and validate the importance of this lost technique of medieval leatherworking.

“An unusual decorated skin coat from Canada: aspects of conservation and identification” by Cruickshank et al (2013)

Cruickshank, Pippa; Cartwright, Caroline; King, Jonathan C.H.; Simpson, Antony; “An unusual decorated skin coat from Canada: aspects of conservation and identification”, British Museum Technical Research Bulletin 7 (2013) pp. 95–104.
PDF

Summary:

A skin coat (Am1949,22.175), which has recently been examined and conserved, belongs to a group of about perhaps 30 surviving within museum collections and made around James Bay and Hudson Bay in northern Canada. They date to around 1760–1860 and were made by the Cree people, with possible additions by the Ojibwe/Anishaabeg in the region of the northern Great Lakes. As this group of coats is poorly understood and the coat stimulated some discussion while undergoing treatment in the conservation studio, further investigation was carried out on the materials of which it is composed. Fibre samples were identified using variable pressure scanning electron microscopy. The coat is thought to be made of moose skin but as it has been de-haired no moose hairs survived for identification. The few hairs remaining in situ on the collar and cuffs were identified as wolverine and river otter respectively. Conservation treatment enabled the cuffs to be gently folded back outside the sleeves. As the coat would originally have looked very different, before almost total loss of hair on the collar and cuffs due to past insect attack, a digital reconstruction was made to give an idea of its original appearance. The epaulettes have been quite roughly attached to the shoulders of the coat with coarse thread, suggesting that they may well have been added later, possibly from an older garment, as evidenced by the very fine but faded loom-woven quillwork and the presence of clear glass beads. The fur collar and cuffs could also have been added to the coat at this time.

CHEMCH 2014, Vienna (Austria), online posters on parchment and leather

The 3^rd International Congress on Chemistry for Cultural Heritage, CHEMCH 2014, that took place last July in Austria, was hosted by the Institute of Science and Technology in Art of the Academy of Fine Arts of Vienna (book of abstracts is available here).

Some of the posters presentations on leather and parchment are available online at the Congress website. The titles, the authors and the posters pdf files are as follows:

P14
"EXAMINATION OF HISTORIC PARCHMENT MANUSCRIPTS BY NON-INVASIVE REFLECTION-FTIR – POSSIBILITIES LIMITATIONS"
W. Vetter, G. Pöllnitz, M. Schreiner
PDF

P19

"DETERIORATION OF VEGETABLE-TANNED LEATHER INVESTIGATED BY UNILATERAL NMR: EFFECTS OF HYDROLYSIS AND THERMAL TREATMENTS"

C. Sendrea, E. Badea, H. Iovu
PDF

P21
"ARTIFICIALLY AGED PARCHMENT INVESTIGATED BY FTIR"
I. Petroviciu, C. Carsote, W. Vetter, L. Miu, M. Schreiner
PDF

La fabrication et le commerce des cuirs et des peaux par Vincent (1872)

Vincent, Charles; La fabrication et le commerce des cuirs et des peaux, Paris, Bureaux au Journal la Halle aux cuirs (1872).

URL (Gallica)