“Investigation of the recent microbial degradation of the skin of the Chinchorro mummies of Ancient Chile” by DeAraujo et al (2016)

DeAraujo, A.; Vasanthakumar, A.; Sepulveda, M.; Standen, V.; Arriaza, B.; Mitchell, R., “Investigation of the recent microbial degradation of the skin of the Chinchorro mummies of Ancient Chile”,  Journal of Cultural Heritage 22 (2016) 999–1005.

Doi:10.1016/j.culher.2015.11.004  (ScienceDirect, restricted access)

Abstract: 

Biodeterioration of cultural heritage artifacts due to microbial activity presents a significant challenge to conservators and museums around the World. A collection of Chinchorro mummies recovered from the Atacama Desert (the oldest artificial mummies ever found, dating back to 5050 B.C.E.) has been stored in the Universidad de Tarapacá, northern Chile. Over the past ten years, accelerated deterioration of some mummies has been documented. Blackening and exudation of some areas of their remaining skin is causing disfigurement of the mummies and poses a threat to the collection, also for mummies in situ exposed to the natural environment. This study was designed to provide a broad analysis of the skin microbiota of Chinchorro mummies and, investigate the relationship between the presence of microbes and the recent discoloration and biodegradation of the Chinchorro mummies’ skin. Microorganisms isolated from degraded Chinchorro mummy skin samples were similar, based on ribosomal RNA analysis, to bacteria found in the human skin microbiome (predominantly, Bacillus, Staphylococcus, and Methylococcus spp.) and commonly occurring fungi (predominantly, Penicillium and Aspergillus spp.). Some of these microorganisms were able to utilize collagen and/or keratin as the sole carbon source in vitro. We determined the activity of the collagenase/gelatinase enzymes produced by these microorganisms when grown on pig skin, which was used as a surrogate for human skin. The concentration of hydroxyproline, a measure of collagenous protein degradation by the microorganisms, increased with increasing relative humidity. We demonstrated that keratinolytic and collagenolytic opportunistic microorganisms were likely responsible for the recent degradation phenomenon.

“A whole mitochondria analysis of the Tyrolean Iceman’s leather provides insights into the animal sources of Copper Age clothing” by O’Sullivan et al (2016)

O’Sullivan, N. J.; Teasdale, M. D.; Mattiangeli, V.; Maixner, F.; Pinhasi, R.; Bradley, D. G.; Zink, A., “A whole mitochondria analysis of the Tyrolean Iceman’s leather provides insights into the animal sources of Copper Age clothing”, Scientific Reports 6 (2016) 31279. 

Doi:10.1038/srep31279 (Nature.com, open access)

Abstract: 

The attire of the Tyrolean Iceman, a 5,300-year-old natural mummy from the Ötzal Italian Alps, provides a surviving example of ancient manufacturing technologies. Research into his garments has however, been limited by ambiguity surrounding their source species. Here we present a targeted enrichment and sequencing of full mitochondrial genomes sampled from his clothes and quiver, which elucidates the species of production for nine fragments. Results indicate that the majority of the samples originate from domestic ungulate species (cattle, sheep and goat), whose recovered haplogroups are now at high frequency in today’s domestic populations. Intriguingly, the hat and quiver samples were produced from wild species, brown bear and roe deer respectively. Combined, these results suggest that Copper Age populations made considered choices of clothing material from both the wild and domestic populations available to them. Moreover, these results show the potential for the recovery of complete mitochondrial genomes from degraded prehistoric artefacts.

"The Characterization of Vegetable Tannins and Colouring Agents in Ancient Egyptian Leather from the Collection of the Metropolitan Museum of Art" by Elnaggar et al (2017)

Elnaggar, A.; Leona, M.; Nevin, A.; and Heywood, A., “The Characterization of Vegetable Tannins and Colouring Agents in Ancient Egyptian Leather from the Collection of the Metropolitan Museum of Art”, Archaeometry 59 (2017) 133–147.

doi:10.1111/arcm.12239 (Wiley Online Library, free access)

Abstract:

This work characterizes both tanning and colouring materials found in ancient Egyptian leather objects from the Metropolitan Museum of Art. The analytical investigations focused on assessing the development of the technology of ancient tanners using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS), X-ray fluorescence (XRF), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT–IR), X-ray radiography and a scanning electron microscope connected to an energy-dispersive X-ray detector (SEM–EDX). Reference leather samples and archaeological leather objects were investigated to identify the animal skin species and the early use of hydrolyzable vegetable tannins for leather tanning. Different methods were used to colour th leather, including madder dying and staining with hematite, or painting with Egyptian blue and Egyptian green.

Vue intérieure de la tannerie Raillard et Schaefer, Mulhouse, France (1900)

                                          URL (Gallica)

A comparative study of Roman-period leather from northern Britain by Douglas (2015)

Douglas, Charlotte R., A comparative study of Roman-period leather from northern Britain, MPhil(R) Thesis, University of Glasgow, 2015.

URL (University of Glasgow Theses)

Abstract:

This thesis draws together all of the data on Roman-period leather from northern Britain and conducts a cohesive assessment of past research, current questions and future possibilities. The study area comprises Roman sites on or immediately to the south of Hadrian’s Wall and all sites to the north. Leather has been recovered from 52 Roman sites, totalling at least 14,215 finds comprising manufactured goods, waste leather from leatherworking and miscellaneous/unidentifiable material. This thesis explores how leather and leather goods were resourced, processed, manufactured and supplied across northern Britain. It considers the potential of inscriptions and stamps to provide insights into the leather trade. It also considers the contribution that the study of footwear might make to our understanding of the demography of Roman settlements, shedding light in particular on evidence which suggests that military communities may have been more diverse than previously thought, and that there were women and children living on the northern fringes of the empire long before the Antonine Wall and its civilian communities were established.

“Proteins in Art, Archaeology, and Paleontology: from detection to identification” by Dallongeville et al (2016)

Dallongeville, Sophie; Garnier, Nicolas; Rolando, Christian; Tokarski, Caroline, “Proteins in Art, Archaeology, and Paleontology: from detection to identification”, Chemical Reviews 116(1) (2016) pp. 2–79.

DOI:10.1021/acs.chemrev.5b00037 (ACS Publications, restricted access)

Toward the standardization of use-wear studies: constructing an analogue to prehistoric hide work by Wiederhold (2004)

Wiederhold, James Edward; Toward the standardization of use-wear studies: constructing an analogue to prehistoric hide work. Master's thesis in Anthropology, Texas A&M University (2004).
URL (OAKTrust)

Abstract:

This thesis is a use-wear study that deals with microwear on stone endscrapers used on one worked material: animal skins. The first part of the study defines and describes the process of rendering freshly skinned pelts into functional leather or rawhide products, addressing confusing terminology found in the literature as well. Problems with past use-wear experiments dealing with animal skins are also confronted and explained. The second part of the study examines endscrapers used to flesh and dehair bison hides and compares the use-wear traces left on the tool edge by each activity. This suite of characteristics is then compared to those found on an assemblage of Clovis-age scrapers from the Gault site in central Texas.

“On Some Terms for Leatherworking in Ancient Mesopotamia" by Scurlock (2008)

Scurlock, JoAnn, “On Some Terms for Leatherworking in Ancient Mesopotamia”, in Robert D. Biggs, Jennie Myers, e Martha T. Roth (eds.), Proceedings of the 51st Rencontre Assyriologique Internationale, held at the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago, July 18–22, 2005, Chicago, The Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago (2008) 171–176.

URL / PDF

“Red stains on archaeological leather..." by Koochakzaei & Achachluei (2015)

Koochakzaei, Alireza; Achachluei, Mohsen Mohammadi; “Red stains on archaeological leather: degradation characteristics of a shoe from the 11th–13th centuries (Seljuk period, Iran)”, Journal of the American Institute for Conservation 54(1) (2015) 45–56.

DOI: 10.1179/1945233014Y.0000000033 (Maney Online, restricted access)

Abstract:

In 2006 several valuable leather objects were found during archaeological excavation of Ghalee-Kooh-i Ghaen (a historic stronghold from the Seljuk period, 11th–13th centuries) in the South Khorasan province of Iran. When examined after 5 years, there were red stains on the remnants of a shoe with poor strength and powdery surface similar to red rot decay. Since red rot is more common in manufactured leathers from the mid-19th century, the purpose of this research was to clarify the structural features and degradation factors responsible for red stains on the shoe. Chemical spot tests, isolation and identification of fungi, pH measurements, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy, and energy dispersive x-ray spectroscopy were used to achieve these aims. These measurement results corresponded to lime depilation, tanning with alum and vegetable tannins, and the possible use of CuSO₄ as a preservative of skin in leather-making process. Cladosporium sp. and Penicillium sp. were isolated from the shoe, but Trichophyton sp. was characterized as the main biodeterioration factor. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and pH measurements indicated hydrolysis and acidic degradation of the leather. The characteristics of the red stains were similar to those exhibited by red rot. Therefore, archaeological leathers tanned with alum and vegetable tannins may be exposed to acidic degradation like red rot decay.

"Species identification of archaeological skin objects from Danish bogs" by Brandt et al (2014)

Brandt, Luise Ørsted; Schmidt, Anne Lisbeth; Mannering, Ulla; Sarret, Mathilde; Kelstrup, Christian D.; Olsen, Jesper V.; et al., “Species Identification of Archaeological Skin Objects from Danish Bogs: Comparison between Mass Spectrometry-Based Peptide Sequencing and Microscopy-Based Methods”, PLoS ONE 9(9) (2014) p. e106875.

DOI:10.1371/journal.pone.0106875

Abstract:

Denmark has an extraordinarily large and well-preserved collection of archaeological skin garments found in peat bogs, dated to approximately 920 BC – AD 775. These objects provide not only the possibility to study prehistoric skin costume and technologies, but also to investigate the animal species used for the production of skin garments. Until recently, species identification of archaeological skin was primarily performed by light and scanning electron microscopy or the analysis of ancient DNA. However, the efficacy of these methods can be limited due to the harsh, mostly acidic environment of peat bogs leading to morphological and molecular degradation within the samples. We compared species assignment results of twelve archaeological skin samples from Danish bogs using Mass Spectrometry (MS)-based peptide sequencing, against results obtained using light and scanning electron microscopy. While it was difficult to obtain reliable results using microscopy, MS enabled the identification of several species-diagnostic peptides, mostly from collagen and keratins, allowing confident species discrimination even among taxonomically close organisms, such as sheep and goat. Unlike previous MS-based methods, mostly relying on peptide fingerprinting, the shotgun sequencing approach we describe aims to identify the complete extracted ancient proteome, without preselected specific targets. As an example, we report the identification, in one of the samples, of two peptides uniquely assigned to bovine foetal haemoglobin, indicating the production of skin from a calf slaughtered within the first months of its life. We conclude that MS-based peptide sequencing is a reliable method for species identification of samples from bogs. The mass spectrometry proteomics data were deposited in the ProteomeXchange Consortium with the dataset identifier PXD001029.

“Cluster TOF-SIMS imaging of human skin remains: analysis of a South-Andean mummy sample” by Cersoy et al (2012)

Cersoy, Sophie; Richardin, Pascale; Walter, Philippe; Brunelle, Alain; “Cluster TOF-SIMS imaging of human skin remains: analysis of a South-Andean mummy sample”, Journal of Mass Spectrometry 47(3) (2012) 338–346.
DOI: 10.1002/jms.2979 (restricted access)

Abstract:

A skin sample from a South-Andean mummy dating back from the XIth century was analyzed using time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry imaging using cluster primary ion beams (cluster-TOF-SIMS). For the first time on a mummy, skin dermis and epidermis could be chemically differentiated using mass spectrometry imaging. Differences in amino-acid composition between keratin and collagen, the two major proteins of skin tissue, could indeed be exploited. A surprising lipid composition of hypodermis was also revealed and seems to result from fatty acids damage by bacteria. Using cluster-TOF-SIMS imaging skills, traces of bio-mineralization could be identified at the micrometer scale, especially formation of calcium phosphate at the skin surface. Mineral deposits at the surface were characterized using both scanning electron microscopy (SEM) in combination with energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy and mass spectrometry imaging. The stratigraphy of such a sample was revealed for the first time using this technique. More precise molecular maps were also recorded at higher spatial resolution, below 1 µm. This was achieved using a non-bunched mode of the primary ion source, while keeping intact the mass resolution thanks to a delayed extraction of the secondary ions. Details from biological structure as can be seen on SEM images are observable on chemical maps at this sub-micrometer scale. Thus, this work illustrates the interesting possibilities of chemical imaging by cluster-TOF-SIMS concerning ancient biological tissues.

Why Leather? The Material and Cultural Dimensions of Leather by AA.VV. (2014)

Veldmeijer, A. J.; Harris, S. (eds.), Why Leather? The Material and Cultural Dimensions of Leather, Proceedings of the Archaeological Leather Group conference held in 2011, Leiden, Sidestone Press (2014).

URL

“Les adoberies d’època feudal a la ciutat de Lleida” per Payà (2010)

Payà, Xavier; “Les adoberies d’època feudal a la ciutat de Lleida”, Revista d’arqueologia de Ponent 20 (2010) pp. 27–92.

PDF 1 / PDF 2 / PDF 3 (Raco)

Resum:

En aquest article intentarem esbrinar l’organització, el funcionament i l’evolució de les adoberies d’època feudal documentades a la ciutat de Lleida. Des de començament del segle xiii formaven un veritable complex de petites indústries dedicades a la transformació de la pell en cuir pertanyents a quatre propietaris, segurament blanquers. Els clots, dipòsits i estructures de producció localitzats en cadascuna de les sis adoberies indica un alt grau tecnològic que finalitzava amb el tintat dels cuirs. Les adoberies es construïren a l’interior de la vila, als peus del vessant sud del turó de la Seu Vella, on hi ha abundants fonts d’aigua fàcils de foradar per obtenir aigua i, darrere del mur de tancament fluvial, des d’on les aigües residuals eren abocades a la sèquia d’Alcarràs o a l’areny del riu Segre i Noguerola. La unitat, la qualitat i les implicacions urbanístiques de la seva construcció apunten vers l’existència d’acords privats, gremials o decrets reials que n’estimularen la implantació. Són un excellent testimoni d’aquella societat de menestrals que féu possible projectes com la construcció de la Seu Vella i convertí Lleida en un dels motors econòmics de la corona durant els segles xiii-xiv. Dues d’aquestes adoberies s’han restaurat i integrat a la planta baixa del número 9 de la ramba Ferran i podran ser visitades properament. 

Abstract:

In this article we will attempt to investigate the organization, operation and evolution of the tanneries from the feudal period documented in the city of Lleida. From the beginning of the 13^th century they formed a true group of small industries dedicated to the transformation of leather belonging to four owners, probably tanners. The production pits, deposits and structures located in each of the six tanneries indicate a high technological level that ended with the leather being stained. The tanneries were set up inside the town, at the base of the south slope of the Seu Vella, with abundant sources of water that were easily obtained, and behind the river dam, from where the wastewater was poured into the Alcarràs irrigation ditch or the sandy area of the Segre and Noguerola rivers.The unity, quality and the urbanistic implications of their construction point towards the existence of private agreements, trade agreements or royal decrees that stimulated their implantation. They are an excellent testimony to a society of workmen that made projects like the construction of the Seu Vella possible and they converted Lleida into one of the economic engines of the crown between the 13th to 14th centuries. Two of these tanneries have been restored and have been integrated in the ground floor of number 9, Rambla Ferran and they will be able to be visited soon.

"...The Conservation of Over a Hundred Leather Shoes and Fragments" by Lafrance (2012)

Lafrance, Jessica; "Efficiency and Quality in a Batch Treatment: The Conservation of Over a Hundred Leather Shoes and Fragments", in K. Straetkvern and E. Williams, eds., Proceedings of the 11th ICOM Group on Wet Organic Archaeological Materials Conference: Greenville, 2010. ICOM-CC Working Group on Wet Organic Archaeological Materials (2012) pp. 611–621.

PDF

Abstract:

In late 2008 nearly 400 organic objects from the Old Songhees Reserve site in Victoria, British Columbia, arrived at the Canadian Conservation Institute for treatment. Over half of these objects were leather shoes and fragments covered with corrosion and heavily iron stained. The treatment of 112 of these objects is the topic of this paper. Treatment included individual mechanical cleaning of each shoe, followed by mass chloride removal, iron corrosion stain removal, impregnation with polyethelyne glycol, reshaping, freeze drying, and final consolidation and repair. Employing batch treatment methods for many of the conservation steps reduced time and material costs while careful planning, balanced decision making and monitoring meant that the quality of treatment was not reduced.

Experiments in Cuir Bouilli by Levin (2014)

Samuel James Levin, Experiments in Cuir Bouilli: Practical Trials of Medieval Leathercraft,  BA Thesis on Archaeology, Wesleyan University, 2014.

URL / PDF

Abstract:

This thesis pursues an experimental investigation of cuir bouilli, a particular form of hardened leather used as armor in medieval Europe. In this exploration, I have produced a sample group of 30 distinct varieties of cuir bouilli. These samples represent the most commonly theorized and scientifically grounded production methods of this historic medium. Using a series of armor specific tests, broadly encapsulating the abuse of arrow fire, blunt force trauma, and slashing, I have measured the performance of each cuir bouilli sample. The data gathered from these tests can be used to infer physical properties about each sample, revealing the essential effects of each hardening method. Moreover, these tests indicate how cuir bouilli might have functioned in actual armor use. They demonstrate strengths and weaknesses of each variety, offering reasons for their eventual abandonment in certain contexts and the roles they might have continued to play in others.

"Theoretical aspects of physical-chemical parameters for the correct conservation of mummies on display in museums and preserved in storage rooms” by Samadelli et al (2013)

Samadelli, Marco; Roselli, Graziella; Fernicola, Vito C.; Moroder, Ludwig; Zink, Albert R., “Theoretical aspects of physical-chemical parameters for the correct conservation of mummies on display in museums and preserved in storage rooms”, Journal of Cultural Heritage 14(6) (2013) 480–484
DOI: 10.1016/j.culher.2012.11.004 (restricted access)

Abstract:

This study is aimed at evaluating physical and chemical parameters which are considered as the most appropriate for the long-term preservation of mummies, distinguishing between those which are on display in museums and those which are preserved in storage rooms. The objective of this study is also to compare and discuss differences among the most widely known guidelines and norms of the field and to highlight the single phenomena which affect the decay of this kind of cultural asset.

Ötzi - the Iceman, South Tyrol Museum of Archaeology Website

Ötzi - the Iceman
South Tyrol Museum of Archaeology
http://www.iceman.it/

Xarxa d'Adoberies Històriques de Catalunya

Xarxa d'Adoberies Històriques de Catalunya
URL

Granollers, Igualada, Lleida, Tàrrega i Vic són municipis que conserven importants testimonis i restes patrimonials relacionades amb les adoberies antigues de caràcter històric, moltes convertides avui en museu, centre d'interpretació o espai patrimonial. La suma d'aquests espais patrimonials permet una lectura àmplia i molt completa de l'evolució del treball adober a Catalunya, des dels períodes preindustrials fins a l'època contemporània.

Alhora formen un conjunt d'un alt interès històric, patrimonial i turístic dins l'àmbit català, i cobreixen una àrea geogràfica àmplia, cosa que permet resseguir l'evolució del treball de la pell a Catalunya, des de ponent fins a llevant i del segle XIII al XX .

La importància de les restes que es conserven ha impulsat la creació de la Xarxa d'Adoberies Històriques de Catalunya, que integra cadascun dels espais conservats i vetlla per millorar-ne la conservació, l'estudi, la investigació, la documentació i la difusió.

"English Medieval leatherwork" by Russell (1939)

Russel, Janet; "English Medieval leatherwork", The Archaeological Journal 96 (1939) 132-141

PDF

“A report on the examination of animal skin artefacts from the Bronze Age Salt Mines of Hallstatt, Austria” by Harris (2006)

Harris, Susanna; “A report on the examination of animal skin artefacts from the Bronze Age Salt Mines of Hallstatt, Austria”, Papers from the Institute of Archaeology 17 (2006) 69–76

DOI:10.5334/pia.270 / PDF

Research Aims and Method:

The aim of this report is to describe the ten animal skin fragments and artefacts, and to discuss these in relation to the qualities and role of skins as a cloth technology in the Bronze Age. This includes the colour and texture, dimensions and thickness, sewing, seams and edges, use and reuse of these artefacts. These fragments and artefacts have not been studied before and add to the previously published findings of animal skin artefacts from the Bronze Age salt mines, most recently published in a number of articles by Barth (1993; 1992; 1989) and will be discussed in comparison to recent analysis of the textile finds (Grömer 2005) from the same site and in relation to the context of animal skins in the Bronze Age.