“Investigation of the recent microbial degradation of the skin of the Chinchorro mummies of Ancient Chile” by DeAraujo et al (2016)

DeAraujo, A.; Vasanthakumar, A.; Sepulveda, M.; Standen, V.; Arriaza, B.; Mitchell, R., “Investigation of the recent microbial degradation of the skin of the Chinchorro mummies of Ancient Chile”,  Journal of Cultural Heritage 22 (2016) 999–1005.

Doi:10.1016/j.culher.2015.11.004  (ScienceDirect, restricted access)

Abstract: 

Biodeterioration of cultural heritage artifacts due to microbial activity presents a significant challenge to conservators and museums around the World. A collection of Chinchorro mummies recovered from the Atacama Desert (the oldest artificial mummies ever found, dating back to 5050 B.C.E.) has been stored in the Universidad de Tarapacá, northern Chile. Over the past ten years, accelerated deterioration of some mummies has been documented. Blackening and exudation of some areas of their remaining skin is causing disfigurement of the mummies and poses a threat to the collection, also for mummies in situ exposed to the natural environment. This study was designed to provide a broad analysis of the skin microbiota of Chinchorro mummies and, investigate the relationship between the presence of microbes and the recent discoloration and biodegradation of the Chinchorro mummies’ skin. Microorganisms isolated from degraded Chinchorro mummy skin samples were similar, based on ribosomal RNA analysis, to bacteria found in the human skin microbiome (predominantly, Bacillus, Staphylococcus, and Methylococcus spp.) and commonly occurring fungi (predominantly, Penicillium and Aspergillus spp.). Some of these microorganisms were able to utilize collagen and/or keratin as the sole carbon source in vitro. We determined the activity of the collagenase/gelatinase enzymes produced by these microorganisms when grown on pig skin, which was used as a surrogate for human skin. The concentration of hydroxyproline, a measure of collagenous protein degradation by the microorganisms, increased with increasing relative humidity. We demonstrated that keratinolytic and collagenolytic opportunistic microorganisms were likely responsible for the recent degradation phenomenon.

"Species identification of archaeological skin objects from Danish bogs" by Brandt et al (2014)

Brandt, Luise Ørsted; Schmidt, Anne Lisbeth; Mannering, Ulla; Sarret, Mathilde; Kelstrup, Christian D.; Olsen, Jesper V.; et al., “Species Identification of Archaeological Skin Objects from Danish Bogs: Comparison between Mass Spectrometry-Based Peptide Sequencing and Microscopy-Based Methods”, PLoS ONE 9(9) (2014) p. e106875.

DOI:10.1371/journal.pone.0106875

Abstract:

Denmark has an extraordinarily large and well-preserved collection of archaeological skin garments found in peat bogs, dated to approximately 920 BC – AD 775. These objects provide not only the possibility to study prehistoric skin costume and technologies, but also to investigate the animal species used for the production of skin garments. Until recently, species identification of archaeological skin was primarily performed by light and scanning electron microscopy or the analysis of ancient DNA. However, the efficacy of these methods can be limited due to the harsh, mostly acidic environment of peat bogs leading to morphological and molecular degradation within the samples. We compared species assignment results of twelve archaeological skin samples from Danish bogs using Mass Spectrometry (MS)-based peptide sequencing, against results obtained using light and scanning electron microscopy. While it was difficult to obtain reliable results using microscopy, MS enabled the identification of several species-diagnostic peptides, mostly from collagen and keratins, allowing confident species discrimination even among taxonomically close organisms, such as sheep and goat. Unlike previous MS-based methods, mostly relying on peptide fingerprinting, the shotgun sequencing approach we describe aims to identify the complete extracted ancient proteome, without preselected specific targets. As an example, we report the identification, in one of the samples, of two peptides uniquely assigned to bovine foetal haemoglobin, indicating the production of skin from a calf slaughtered within the first months of its life. We conclude that MS-based peptide sequencing is a reliable method for species identification of samples from bogs. The mass spectrometry proteomics data were deposited in the ProteomeXchange Consortium with the dataset identifier PXD001029.

“Cluster TOF-SIMS imaging of human skin remains: analysis of a South-Andean mummy sample” by Cersoy et al (2012)

Cersoy, Sophie; Richardin, Pascale; Walter, Philippe; Brunelle, Alain; “Cluster TOF-SIMS imaging of human skin remains: analysis of a South-Andean mummy sample”, Journal of Mass Spectrometry 47(3) (2012) 338–346.
DOI: 10.1002/jms.2979 (restricted access)

Abstract:

A skin sample from a South-Andean mummy dating back from the XIth century was analyzed using time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry imaging using cluster primary ion beams (cluster-TOF-SIMS). For the first time on a mummy, skin dermis and epidermis could be chemically differentiated using mass spectrometry imaging. Differences in amino-acid composition between keratin and collagen, the two major proteins of skin tissue, could indeed be exploited. A surprising lipid composition of hypodermis was also revealed and seems to result from fatty acids damage by bacteria. Using cluster-TOF-SIMS imaging skills, traces of bio-mineralization could be identified at the micrometer scale, especially formation of calcium phosphate at the skin surface. Mineral deposits at the surface were characterized using both scanning electron microscopy (SEM) in combination with energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy and mass spectrometry imaging. The stratigraphy of such a sample was revealed for the first time using this technique. More precise molecular maps were also recorded at higher spatial resolution, below 1 µm. This was achieved using a non-bunched mode of the primary ion source, while keeping intact the mass resolution thanks to a delayed extraction of the secondary ions. Details from biological structure as can be seen on SEM images are observable on chemical maps at this sub-micrometer scale. Thus, this work illustrates the interesting possibilities of chemical imaging by cluster-TOF-SIMS concerning ancient biological tissues.

"Theoretical aspects of physical-chemical parameters for the correct conservation of mummies on display in museums and preserved in storage rooms” by Samadelli et al (2013)

Samadelli, Marco; Roselli, Graziella; Fernicola, Vito C.; Moroder, Ludwig; Zink, Albert R., “Theoretical aspects of physical-chemical parameters for the correct conservation of mummies on display in museums and preserved in storage rooms”, Journal of Cultural Heritage 14(6) (2013) 480–484
DOI: 10.1016/j.culher.2012.11.004 (restricted access)

Abstract:

This study is aimed at evaluating physical and chemical parameters which are considered as the most appropriate for the long-term preservation of mummies, distinguishing between those which are on display in museums and those which are preserved in storage rooms. The objective of this study is also to compare and discuss differences among the most widely known guidelines and norms of the field and to highlight the single phenomena which affect the decay of this kind of cultural asset.

Ötzi - the Iceman, South Tyrol Museum of Archaeology Website

Ötzi - the Iceman
South Tyrol Museum of Archaeology
http://www.iceman.it/

Mumien in Museen von Bigna Ludwig (2006)

Bigna Ludwig, Mumien in Museen. Aspekte zu Besitz, ethischem Umgang, Konservierung und Ausstellung am Beispiel einer peruanischen Kindermumie aus den Reiss-Engelhorn-Museen Mannheim, Diplomarbeit Institut für Restaurierungs- und Konservierungswissenschaft Fakultät Kulturwissenschaften der Fachhochschule Köln, 2006

URL

Kurzzusammenfassung:

Die Fragestellung zum ethisch korrekten Umgang mit Mumien in Museen, insbesondere bei Konservierung, Restaurierung, Lagerung und Ausstellung, wurde der Methodik der Angewandten Ethik folgend untersucht. Die Sichtweisen der unterschiedlichen Disziplinen, die einen beruflichen Umgang mit Mumien haben, wurden dargestellt. Eine ­Entscheidungsfindungsstrategie wurde entwickelt, die dem Konservator/Restaurator hilft, ein adäquates Maßnahmenkonzept zu erstellen. Als Grundlage diente das niederländische „Decision-Making-Model“ aus dem Bereich der Konservierung moderner Kunst. Die praktische Umsetzung der erarbeiteten Entscheidungsfindungshilfe erfolgte anhand einer peruanischen Kindermumie aus den Reiss-Engelhorn-Museen, Mannheim. Mit Hilfe der entwickelten Strategie wurde ein Maßnahmenkonzept erstellt. Vorgeschlagen wird eine passgenaue Lager- und Ausstellungsstütze aus biokompatiblem Material, hergestellt mittels rapid prototyping. Material und Technik kommen aus der Medizin und berücksichtigen somit das ehemalige Menschsein der Mumie.

Abstract:

Different professional disciplines are dealing with mummies in museums. They have different professional interests and different opinions about the correct way to deal with mummies. It’s important not only to know the ethical guidelines of one’s own profession but also to look at the situation from different points of view. Furthermore it was considered to be helpful to have a strategy for decision-making in conservation. The dutch “Decision-Making-Model“ for conservation of contemporary art was adapted to mummies in museums. It was then applied to a peruvian child mummy from the Reiss-Engelhorn-Museen in Mannheim, resulting in a conservation concept. Proposed was a storage and display mount fabricated with rapid prototyping technique from biocompatible material. This method is used in medical surgery and thus is taking account of the mummy’s original humanity.

"Lindow man, Tollund man and other peat bog bodies" by Painter (1991)

Painter, T. J.; "Lindow man, tollund man and other peat-bog bodies: the preservative and antimicrobial action of Sphagnan, a reactive glycuronoglycan with tanning and sequestering properties", Carbohydrate Polymers 15 (2) (1991) 123-142
doi:10.1016/0144-8617(91)90028-B (restricted access)

Abstract:

The tanning reaction that contributes to the preservation of animal tissues by peat consists of a Maillard reaction between the free amino-groups of collagen and reactive carbonyl groups in a soluble glycuronoglycan (‘sphagnan’) containing residues of D-lyxo-5-hexosulopyranuronic acid. Sphagnan is a complex, pectin-like material which is covalently linked to cellulosic and amyloid-like chains in living Sphagnum moss, but slowly liberated by autohydrolysis into the ambient water as the dead moss is converted into peat. It is a precursor of aquatic humus from Sphagnum peat, and the tanning of adventitious collagen in animal remains is only one manifestation of the continuous incorporation of ammonia, aminoacids and polypeptides from a wide variety of sources into the structure of the humic acid molecule. Sphagnan can also suppress microbial activity by reacting with exo-enzymes and sequestering essential, multivalent metal cations.

Bog bodies of the Iron Age by Susan K. Lewis, NOVA-PBS (2006)

More than a thousand preserved bodies and skeletons have emerged from the peat bogs of Northwest Europe, and scientists now have the tools to study the remains in such detail that they can, in a sense, resurrect ancient people. Drawing on the work of Dutch bog-body scholar Wijnand van der Sanden, the following map charts more than 80 important finds and includes profiles of some of the most fascinating.

"Dating bog bodies by means of 14C-AMS" by van der Plicht et al (2004)

van der Plicht, J.; van der Sanden, W. A. B.; Aerts, A. T.; Streurman, H. J.; "Dating bog bodies by means of ¹⁴C-AMS", Journal of Archaeological Science 31(4) (2004) 471-491

doi:10.1016/j.jas.2003.09.012 (restricted access)

Abstract:

We have made efforts to date a substantial number of bodies from northwest European peat bogs by means of ¹⁴C. In our research, we compared materials such as skin, hair, bone, textile, leather and wood where available. Most of the bodies we investigated were found to date from the Late Iron Age/Roman period (c. 2nd century BC–4th century AD). Our data set shows that bog bodies in general can indeed be successfully dated by means of ¹⁴C analysis. Our results contradict comments in the literature (e.g. C.S. Briggs, Did they fall or were they pushed? Some unresolved questions about bog bodies, in: R.C. Turner, R.G. Scaife (Eds.), Bog Bodies—New Discoveries and New Perspectives, British Museum Press, London, 1995, pp. 168–182) to the effect that ‘peat bogs can age corpses so as to distort completely the usefulness of Radiocarbon’.

"Sections of mummy: histological investigation" by Currie (2006)

One more example of (skin) mummy’s scientific study:

Currie, K.; " Sections of mummy: histological investigation of ancient Egyptian remains", The Biomedical Scientist, April 2006, pp. 328-331

Egyptian Mummies and Modern Science (2008)

It will be available very soon....

David, Rosalie Ann (ed.); Egyptian mummies and modern science, Cambridge University Press (2008)
Hardback available from March 2008 (ISBN-13: 9780521865791)

Table of contents
Excerpt (10 pages)
Description (from the book): Egyptian mummies have always aroused popular and scientific interest; however, most modern studies, although significantly increased in number and range, have been published in specialist journals. Now, this unique book, written by a long-established team of scientists, brings this exciting, cross-disciplinary area of research to a wider readership. It shows how this team's multidisciplinary, investigative methods and the unique resource of the Egyptian Mummy Tissue Bank are being used for the new major international investigations of disease evolution and ancient Egyptian pharmacy and pharmacology. It also assesses the current status of palaeopathology and ancient DNA research, and treatments available for conserving mummified remains. Descriptions of the historical development of Egyptian mummifications and medicine and detailed references to previous scientific investigations provide the context for firsthand accounts of cutting-edge research by prominent specialists in this field, demonstrating how these techniques can contribute to a new perspective on Egyptology.

"Studying skin of an Egyptian mummy by infrared microscopy" by Cotte at al (2005)

Cotte, M.; Walter, P.; Tsoucaris, G.; Dumas, P.; "Studying skin of an Egyptian mummy by infrared microscopy", Vibrational Spectroscopy 38, Issues 1-2, (2005) 159-167

doi:10.1016/j.vibspec.2005.02.024 (Restricted access)

Abstract:The state of conservation/degradation of mummy human remains, can be inferred from their biochemical composition, as well as the secondary structures of proteins. Infrared microscopy is a very appropriate technique for addressing such issues. In this study, skin leg of an Egyptian mummy, was collected and prepared by microtomy, and was analysed using an infrared imager (Spectrum™ Spotlight) and using synchrotron infrared microscopy. Complementary analyses at both large scale and size close to the diffraction limit help tremendously for understanding the state of degradation. The external layer of mummy skin appears to be more preserved as evidenced by the presence of characteristic biological vibrational features (in particular amide bands) in spectra collected within this region. Adipocere and calcium oxalate are the main degradation products identified in the mummy skin. The origin of the degradation process is not yet fully understood.

Making Egyptian mummies

Egyptian mummies are human (or other animal) bodies that have been preserved after death. In an audio slide show, Egyptologist Salima Ikram describes the steps of a "classic" mummification like those performed on 18th-Dynasty Pharaohs.
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And for those interested in Egyptian mummies...The University of Chicago Library website offers high-resolution scans from a 1912 catalogue of the Cairo Museum's Royal Mummy collection. The publication offers striking photographs of each mummy, accompanied by detailed accounts of their physical condition.The catalogue is:
Smith, G. Elliot; Catalogue General Antiquites Egyptiennes du Musee du Caire: The Royal Mummies, Le Caire : Imprimerie de L'institut Francais D'archeologie Orientale, 1912, Catalogue General Antiquites Egyptiennes du Musee du Caire, DT57.C2 vol 59
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Interactive "Tollund man" by Susan K. Lewis, NOVA (2006)

"Tollund man" by Susan K. Lewis, NOVA (2006)
URL

More information about the Tollund man can be found at:

http://www.tollundman.dk/

The fascinating bog bodies by Jenny Dente (1997)

Os corpos humanos encontrados naturalmente preservados em ambientes de turfeira constituem achados arqueológicos extraordinários. O caso mais conhecido é, provavelmente, o Lindow man do Museu Britânico. Estes corpos apresentam a pele e outros tecidos  geralmente bem preservados devido à conjugação de vários factores físico-químicos que se encontram descritos online por Jenny Dente.

The bog bodies are extraordinary archaeological finds. Lindow man, one of The British Museum highlights, is probably the best known case. Skin and other tissues are usually well preserved due to a combination of different factors which can be found described online by Jenny Dente.

"Conservación preventiva de una colección única en el mundo: cuerpos momificados Chinchorro" por Varela (2002)

Varela, M. S., "Conservación preventiva de una colección única en el mundo: cuerpos momificados Chinchorro", Conserva 6 (2002) 75-86

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Resumen:

Este trabajo es el resultado de dos proyectos sobre conservación preventiva de los cuerpos momificados de la cultura Chinchorro, preservados en los depósitos del Museo Arqueológico San Miguel de Azapa, Universidad de Tarapacá, Arica. Los proyectos abordaron dos aspectos: el deterioro por impacto mecánico y el deterioro por acción medioambiental. El primero fue enfrentado mediante un sistema de estantería y embalaje adecuado; el segundo mediante la habilitación de un depósito con mínima agresión medioambiental. Estas dos modificaciones permiten que el manejo y el uso de la colección, tanto para investigación como difusión, se realice adecuadamente, minimizando el impacto mecánico y medioambiental, que incidirá en la preservación del material.

Title in English:

"Preventive conservation of Chinchorro mummified bodies"

Abstract:

This study is the outcome of two projects dealing with preventive conservation of mummified bodies of the Chinchorro culture, which are stored in the San Miguel de Azapa Archaeological Museum, Tarapacá University, Arica. The projects included two features: damage caused by mechanical impact and damage caused by environmental action. The former was faced through appropriate shelving and packing systems, and the latter, through the construction of a storage room with minimum environmental insult. These two modifications allow a proper handling and use of the collection, both for research and spread purposes, thus minimizing mechanical and environmental impacts which will influence on the material preservation.