“Proteins in Art, Archaeology, and Paleontology: from detection to identification” by Dallongeville et al (2016)

Dallongeville, Sophie; Garnier, Nicolas; Rolando, Christian; Tokarski, Caroline, “Proteins in Art, Archaeology, and Paleontology: from detection to identification”, Chemical Reviews 116(1) (2016) pp. 2–79.

DOI:10.1021/acs.chemrev.5b00037 (ACS Publications, restricted access)

“Quantifying degradation of collagen in ancient manuscripts: the case of the Dead Sea Temple Scroll” by Schütz et al (2013)

Schütz, R.; Bertinetti, L.; Rabin, I.; Fratzl, P.; Masic, A., “Quantifying degradation of collagen in ancient manuscripts: the case of the Dead Sea Temple Scroll”, Analyst 138(19) (2013) pp. 5594–5599.

DOI:10.1039/C3AN00609C (Royal Society of Chemistry, open access)

Abstract:

Since their discovery in the late 1940s, the Dead Sea Scrolls, some 900 ancient Jewish texts, have never stopped attracting the attention of scholars and the broad public alike, because they were created towards the end of the Second Temple period and the “time of Christ”. Most of the work on them has been dedicated to the information contained in the scrolls' text, leaving physical aspects of the writing materials unexamined. They are, however, crucial for both historical insight and preservation of the scrolls. Although scientific analysis requires handling, it is essential to establish the state of degradation of these valued documents. Polarized Raman Spectroscopy (PRS) is a powerful tool for obtaining information on both the composition and the level of disorder of molecular units. In this study, we developed a non-invasive and non-destructive methodology that allows a quantification of the disorder (that can be related to the degradation) of protein molecular units in collagen fibers. Not restricted to collagen, this method can be applied also to other protein-based fibrous materials such as ancient silk, wool or hair. We used PRS to quantify the degradation of the collagen fibers in a number of fragments of the Temple Scroll (11Q19a). We found that collagen fibers degrade heterogeneously, with the ones on the surface more degraded than those in the core.

"Parchment production in the first millennium BC at Seglamen, Northern Ethiopia" by Phillipson (2013)

Phillipson, Laurel; "Parchment production in the first millennium BC at Seglamen, Northern Ethiopia", African Archaeological Review 30(3) (2013) 285–303.
doi:10.1007/s10437-013-9139-y (SpringerLink, restricted access)

Abstract:

Traditional Ethiopian and European processes of parchment manufacture and their associated tools are described and compared with artefacts recovered from an important pre-Aksumite site at Seglamen, in the highlands of northern Ethiopia. Many close similarities of tools used at Seglamen in both the earlier and later phases of the pre-Aksumite, from about 800 BC, to implements used by present-day Ethiopian scribes attest to the systematic production of parchment at Seglamen and to cultural continuity over a period of almost three millennia.

"Curtimento de peles" por Leite (1912)

 

Leite, Manuel da Silva; "Curtimento de peles", Ilustração Portuguesa 350 (1912) 601-604.

PDF (Hemeroteca Digital de Lisboa)

Classification of finishing tools in Greek bookbinding by Sarris (2010)

Sarris, Nikolas; Classification of finishing tools in Greek bookbinding: establishing links from the Library of St Catherine's Monastery, Sinai, Egypt. PhD thesis, University of the Arts London (2010).

URL (UAL Repository)

Abstract:
The thesis examines the decoration of Greek bookbinding, through the study of the leather-covered bindings from the monastery of Saint Catherine in Sinai, Egypt.
The manuscript collection is remarkable for the variety of binding styles that represent mainly Greek but also other bookbinding traditions, including Georgian. Syrian and Eastern European. The examination of the decorative motifs tooled on the leather covered bindings aims to identify the style and characteristics of bookbinding at the monastery. Moreover, links between and evidence for specific bindings and the manuscripts they contain are established by grouping them and relating them to specific binders and bookbinding workshops. The workshops of the monastery are examined in parallel with groups of bindings that were imported into the monastery. The extent to which the trade in books and the circulation of binding techniques between the monastery and the west was a reflection of the relations of the monastery with its dependencies is also explored.
Rubbings of the approximately 5500 tool impressions on the 1195 decorated bindings have provided the core research material. They have been identified, classified and organized into a descriptive electronic database. Imaging techniques have been developed to compare the scanned impressions, which permitted the identification of impressions of the same finishing tools. Based on the identity of their decorative tools and on the process of comparison of their structural features, a number of the bindings have been ascribed to a total of 70 specific workshops, whose dates and origins are explored. 16 of these workshops - nine from the monastery of St Catherine and seven from elsewhere, which produced bindings imported to the monastery, are discussed analytically. In addition to that, 40 original bookbinding finishing tools were discovered at the monastery during this research, which have provided invaluable material for our understanding of the tooling methods and particularities of decorated book covers at the monastery.
The largest corpus of finishing tools used on Greek bindings to date has been compiled to provide a reference tool which will aid future research on Greek bookbinding.

Toward the standardization of use-wear studies: constructing an analogue to prehistoric hide work by Wiederhold (2004)

Wiederhold, James Edward; Toward the standardization of use-wear studies: constructing an analogue to prehistoric hide work. Master's thesis in Anthropology, Texas A&M University (2004).
URL (OAKTrust)

Abstract:

This thesis is a use-wear study that deals with microwear on stone endscrapers used on one worked material: animal skins. The first part of the study defines and describes the process of rendering freshly skinned pelts into functional leather or rawhide products, addressing confusing terminology found in the literature as well. Problems with past use-wear experiments dealing with animal skins are also confronted and explained. The second part of the study examines endscrapers used to flesh and dehair bison hides and compares the use-wear traces left on the tool edge by each activity. This suite of characteristics is then compared to those found on an assemblage of Clovis-age scrapers from the Gault site in central Texas.

The new website of the Museum of Leather Craft, Northampton (UK)

The Museum of Leather Craft (IMOLC), Northampton (UK)
http://www.imolc.com/

Trunk covered with Russia leather, 1689-1702, Victoria & Albert Museum

“MRI and Unilateral NMR study of reindeer skin tanning processes” by Zhu et al (2015)

Zhu, Lizheng; Del Federico, Eleonora; Ilott, Andrew J.; Klokkernes, Torunn; Kehlet, Cindie; Jerschow, Alexej, “MRI and Unilateral NMR study of reindeer skin tanning processes”, Analytical Chemistry 87(7) (2015) 3820–3825.

DOI:10.1021/ac504474e (ACS Publications, restricted access)

Abstract:

The study of arctic or subarctic indigenous skin clothing material, known for its design and ability to keep the body warm, provides information about the tanning materials and techniques. The study also provides clues about the culture that created it, since tanning processes are often specific to certain indigenous groups. Untreated skin samples and samples treated with willow (Salix sp) bark extract and cod liver oil are compared in this study using both MRI and unilateral NMR techniques. The two types of samples show different proton spatial distributions and different relaxation times, which may also provide information about the tanning technique and aging behavior.

“Use of aluminium alkoxide and oxazolidine II to treat acid-deteriorated historic leather” by Lama et al (2015)

Lama, Anne; Antunes, A. Paula M.; Covington, Anthony D.; Guthrie-Strachan, Jeffry; Fletcher, Yvette;“Use of aluminium alkoxide and oxazolidine II to treat acid-deteriorated historic leather”, Journal of the Institute of Conservation 38(2) (2015) 172–187.

DOI:10.1080/19455224.2015.1071713 (Taylor& Francis Online, restricted access)

Abstract:

This study was undertaken to develop a product that will potentially delay the progress of deterioration of acid-deteriorated historic leather. Acid-deteriorated leather samples were treated with a new formulation consisting of aluminium di(isopropoxide) acetoacetate ester chelate (aluminium alkoxide) and 5-ethyl-1-aza-3,7-dioxabicyclo[3.3.0]octane (oxazolidine II). The leather samples were also treated with oxazolidine II and aluminium alkoxide separately to compare the effectiveness of these reagents against the new formulation. Untreated leather samples were used as a negative control. Acid-deteriorated leather samples treated with Cellugel®, aluminium alkoxide and the new formulation along with corresponding untreated leather samples were also subjected to accelerated ageing in order to investigate the longevity of the treated leather. The impact of the treatments and accelerated ageing was determined by measuring the hydrothermal stability of the leather and pH of the aqueous extract. The formulation showed a potential to provide the acid-deteriorated historic leather with long-term protection against an artificially-created acidic environment.

Resumé:

Cette étude a été menée afin de développer un produit pouvant potentiellement retarder la progression de la détérioration du cuir ancien devenu acide. Des échantillons de cuirs acides ont été traités avec une nouvelle formule composée de chélate d'aluminium d'acétoacétate de di-isopropoxyde (alcoolate d'aluminium) et de 5-éthyl-1-aza-3,7-dioxabicyclo [3.3.0] octane (oxazolidine II). Les échantillons de cuir ont également été traités avec, séparément, de l'oxazolidine II et de l'alcoolate d'aluminium pour comparer l'efficacité de ces réactifs par rapport à la nouvelle formule. Des échantillons de cuirs non traités ont été utilisés comme témoin négatif. Des échantillons de cuirs dégradés par l'acidité traités avec du Cellugel®, de l'alcoolate d'aluminium et la nouvelle formule ainsi que des échantillons correspondant aux mêmes cuirs non traités ont été également soumis au vieillissement accéléré afin d'étudier la longévité du cuir traité. L'impact des traitements et le vieillissement accéléré ont été évalués par une mesure de la résistance du cuir à la chaleur et du pH de l'extrait aqueux. La formule a montré une capacité à fournir au cuir ancien acide une protection de long terme face à un environnement acide artificiel.

“Thermal characterization of new, artificially aged and historical leather and parchment” by Sebestyén et al (2015)

Sebestyén, Zoltán; Czégény, Zsuzsanna; Badea, Elena; Carsote, Cristina; Şendrea, Claudiu; Barta-Rajnai, Eszter; Bozi, János; Miu, Lucretia; Jakab, Emma; “Thermal characterization of new, artificially aged and historical leather and parchment”, Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis 115 (2015) pp.419–427.
DOI:10.1016/j.jaap.2015.08.022 (ScienceDirect, restricted access)

Abstract:

The aging mechanism of leather and parchment was studied by thermoanalytical methods to understand the effect of the environment on the historical manuscripts and the heritage of libraries and archives. Alkaline and acidic treatments followed by thermal dehydration were applied to achieve chemical changes in the structure of new leather and parchment similar to the slow natural aging of historical samples. Chemical and structural changes during both natural and artificial aging processes were characterized by thermoanalytical techniques. The thermal stability and the evolution profile of the decomposition products under slow heating were studied by thermogravimetry/mass spectrometry (TG/MS). The distribution of the decomposition products of these collagen-based materials under fast pyrolysis was characterized by pyrolysis-gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (Py-GC/MS). It was found that the maximal rate of the thermal decomposition (DTGmax) significantly decreases by aging in case of both leather and parchment samples indicating the degree of deterioration. Py-GC/MS has been found to be a suitable technique to sensitively monitor the degradation of the polyphenolic components of the vegetable tannins under natural or artificial aging. It was established that the tannin content of leather is more significantly affected by natural aging and alkaline treatment than the main structure of the polypeptide chains. Principal component analysis (PCA) has been used to find statistical correlations between the experimental data for leather samples. The results of the PCA confirmed that the alkaline treatment and the natural aging processes similarly modify the tannin content of the vegetable tanned leather.

Writing box with painted and gilded leather, c.1525, Victoria & Albert Museum

“Thermal analysis on historical leather bookbinding treated with PEG and hydroxyapatite nanoparticles” by Ershad-Langroudi and Mirmontahai (2015)

Ershad-Langroudi, Amir; Mirmontahai, Akram, “Thermal analysis on historical leather bookbinding treated with PEG and hydroxyapatite nanoparticles”, Journal of Thermal Analysis and Calorimetry 120(2) (2015) 1119–1127.

DOI:10.1007/s10973-015-4461-z (SpringerLink, restricted access)

Abstract:

Thermal analysis approaches give the opportunity to investigate structural changes in historical leather like as dehydration, crystallization, and melting process. An historical leather sample from nineteenth century was considered in this study. The leather samples were treated with a suspension of nano-hydroxyapatite and polyethylene glycol 400 (PEG 400) in an aqueous solution. The treatment effects on the structural changes in historical leather were studied by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and thermogravimetric analysis (TG). DSC technique has been employed to study the thermal-associated changes in historical leather to an artificial aging and the conservation of nanocomposite treatment. Moreover, thermogravimetric analysis and differential thermal gravimetry (TG–DTG) are used as useful methods for the investigation of the mass losses of the treated and untreated samples at the progressive heating in N2 gas flow. Furthermore, scanning electron microscopy studies indicated the collagen fibril changes in treated sample in comparison with those of untreated sample and after accelerated aging test.

“Trois centres de ganterie : Millau, Niort, Saint-Junien" par Meynier (1934)

 Meynier, A., “Trois centres de ganterie : Millau, Niort, Saint-Junien”, Annales de Géographie 43(246) (1934) 648–652.

Doi: 10.3406/geo.1934.10752 (Persée)

Les animaux à fourrures par Kretzschmar (1923)

Kretzschmar, Charles, Les animaux à fourrures: ornée dans le texte et hors texte de 105 gravures et dessins de coupes en photogravure et en phototypie et comprenant la description des animaux et de leur pelage, la valeur et l'emploi des pelleteries, l'apprêt des peaux à fourrures, le travail du pelletier, le travail du fourreur (2e édition, revue et augmentée), Chalon-sur-Saône, Édition Ch. Kretzschmar et G. Bosselet (1923).

URL (Gallica)

“Paging through history: parchment as a reservoir of ancient DNA for next generation sequencing” by Teasdale et al (2015)

Teasdale, M. D.; van Doorn, N. L.; Fiddyment, S.; Webb, C. C.; O’Connor, T.; Hofreiter, M.; Collins, M. J.; Bradley, D. G., “Paging through history: parchment as a reservoir of ancient DNA for next generation sequencing”, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Science 370(1660) (2015), p.20130379.

DOI:10.1098/rstb.2013.0379 (The Royal Society Publishing)

Abstract:

Parchment represents an invaluable cultural reservoir. Retrieving an additional layer of information from these abundant, dated livestock-skins via the use of ancient DNA (aDNA) sequencing has been mooted by a number of researchers. However, prior PCR-based work has indicated that this may be challenged by cross-individual and cross-species contamination, perhaps from the bulk parchment preparation process. Here we apply next generation sequencing to two parchments of seventeenth and eighteenth century northern English provenance. Following alignment to the published sheep, goat, cow and human genomes, it is clear that the only genome displaying substantial unique homology is sheep and this species identification is confirmed by collagen peptide mass spectrometry. Only 4% of sequence reads align preferentially to a different species indicating low contamination across species. Moreover, mitochondrial DNA sequences suggest an upper bound of contamination at 5%. Over 45% of reads aligned to the sheep genome, and even this limited sequencing exercise yield 9 and 7% of each sampled sheep genome post filtering, allowing the mapping of genetic affinity to modern British sheep breeds. We conclude that parchment represents an excellent substrate for genomic analyses of historical livestock.

“On Some Terms for Leatherworking in Ancient Mesopotamia" by Scurlock (2008)

Scurlock, JoAnn, “On Some Terms for Leatherworking in Ancient Mesopotamia”, in Robert D. Biggs, Jennie Myers, e Martha T. Roth (eds.), Proceedings of the 51st Rencontre Assyriologique Internationale, held at the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago, July 18–22, 2005, Chicago, The Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago (2008) 171–176.

URL / PDF

Evaluation of Consolidants for the Treatment of Red Rot on Vegetable Tanned Leather by Mahony (2014)

Caitlin Carol Mahony, Evaluation of Consolidants for the Treatment of Red Rot on Vegetable Tanned Leather: The Search for a Natural Material Alternative, Master of Arts Thesis in Conservation of Archaeological and Ethnographic Materials, Los Angeles, University of California, 2014.

URL / PDF

Abstract: 

Inspired by an interest in finding both a natural material alternative as well as a successful treatment approach to powdering leather surfaces on a Native American object, a comparative study of two novel treatment materials and two established consolidants for leather with red rot was undertaken. Natural material consolidants have been demonstrated to be preferred by tribal members for use on materials other than leather. One of the materials tested as a potential consolidant was neri, an aqueous mucilage most commonly extracted from the roots of the aibika plant that is used in the traditional production of Japanese paper. The other material selected was chitosan, the main derivative of the natural polymer chitin, which has recently been applied in treatments of archaeological silk and paper. The performance of these potential materials as leather consolidants was compared against the performance of established modified organic consolidants, i.e. mixtures of Cellugel and Klucel G with the acrylic wax SC6000. The study focused on evaluating each material's consolidation performance, the visual and physical changes observed on the leather, and the chemical stability of the consolidant following heat and light aging. Although neri proved to have excellent chemical stability, it is not recommended for leather due to unavoidable water content and unsatisfactory working properties. Though chitosan had no adverse effects towards the appearance and feel of the leather, it is not recommended as a consolidant until further research is conducted on its chemical stability. The Klucel G with SC6000 mixture had great application properties but the wax component is questionable due to the opacity change of the aged wax. Cellugel demonstrated the most desirable properties in performance and chemical stability; therefore it was selected as the consolidant for the treatment on the Native American object. Experimental results indicate that the natural materials evaluated may be recommended as alternatives to synthetic consolidants following additional research.

Alterations within the structural hierarchy of parchment induced by damage mechanisms by Thomas (2009)

Katherine Thomas, Alterations within the structural hierarchy of parchment induced by damage mechanisms, PhD Thesis on Optometry and Vision Sciences, Cardiff University, 2009.
URL / PDF (ORCA)

Abstract:

Collagen plays an important role in many biological tissues, including skin, which, once dried and treated, forms parchment and leather. The structural alterations that occur in collagenous materials due to X-ray radiation damage, fluctuation of relative humidity, and mechanical deformation (with a special focus on historical parchment) are the focus of this thesis. The primary aim of this thesis is to investigate major structural changes to collagen within parchment when exposed to inappropriate levels of relative humidity during conservation treatments, and cyclic-humidity during long-term storage in archives, museums and libraries. This study led to the discovery that each parchment sample reacted to the application and removal of moisture in a different way, indicating the fundamental need to treat individual parchment documents as in-homogeneous materials. This thesis investigates the changes that fibrillar collagen undergoes and describes the creation of computational models capable of reproducing the X-ray diffraction patterns for collagen. Previous structural models have been created that sufficiently account for native collagen, however, models created as part of this thesis succeed where previous models have failed in explaining the X-ray diffraction patterns collected from damaged collagen. This study provided the opportunity to contribute towards a large-scale international collaborative project on the hugely important historical resource, the Domesday Book. X-ray diffraction was used to provide unprecedented analysis of Domesday Book samples, providing a structural survey at a molecular level. This analysis produced the conclusion that the majority of samples displayed the presence of collagen axial structure, and were generally of a degraded state as a consequence of the method used to source them the samples were scrapings from the surface, which was less intact than the bulk of the parchment.

“Boîtes en peau non tannée”, dans Encyclopédie berbère, par Dudot (1991)

Dudot, B., “Boîtes en peau non tannée”, in Gabriel Camps (ed.), Encyclopédie berbère 10, Aix-en-Provence, Éditions Édisud (1991) pp. 1559–1563.

URL (Revues.org)