"Nature, production and regulation in eighteenth-century Britain and France: the case of the leather industry" by Riello (2008)

Riello, G.; “Nature, production and regulation in eighteenth-century Britain and France: the case of the leather industry”, Historical research 81 (211) (2008) 75-99

DOI: 10.1111/j.1468-2281.2007.00413.x (restricted access) / PDF

Abstract:

Leather was, in the pre-industrial economy, a scarce material used in the production of a wide range of goods. The supply of leather was influenced by the national cattle asset and its slaughtering rate. The difficulty in increasing leather production to meet the demands of a 'consumer revolution' was the subject of theoretical debates and practical intervention. The state controlled and organized the leather market through fiscal and commercial policies. This article offers a comparative analysis of the French and the British leather markets in the eighteenth century. In France, the state assumed an organizational function in the creation of a national leather market. In Britain, by contrast, the state simply regulated an existing market. These different political interventions influenced the dynamics of development of leather production and the leather trades in the two countries. While France suffered from an endemic absence of leather, Britain was able to satisfy its increasing demand efficiently.

Powder flask, Italy, c.1560, Victoria & Albert Museum

Man made mobile: Early saddles of Western North America by Ahlborn (1980)

Ahlborn, Richard E.; Man made mobile: Early saddles of Western North America, Smithsonian Studies in History and Technology 39, Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington (1980)

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Abstract:

This study of early forms of saddles in Western North America features four distinct discussions: major horizons (wide-spread appearances of historical prototypes) within the sixteenth through nineteenth centuries; Mexican origins of form and associated activities; development among U.S. riders before the professional cowboy era (post-Civil War); and development of equestrian equipment among the Plains Indians collateral to the emergence of the U.S. western stock saddle. The four essays are followed by an illustrated catalogue of the equestrian artifacts drawn from the Smithsonian Institution’s holdings and from other important collections for an exhibition at the Renwick Gallery, 1974-1976. There is also a glossary of Spanish and English equestrian terms used in this study. It is projected that this presentation of early saddle forms with many well-documented illustrations and descriptions will provide both a reference source and also the inspiration for additional typological and social studies.

"First direct evidence of Chalcolithic footwear from the Near Eastern Highlands" by Pinhasi et al (2010)

Pinhasi, R.; Gasparian, B.; Areshian, G.; Zardaryan, D.; Smith, A.; Bar-Oz, G.; Higham, T.; "First direct evidence of Chalcolithic footwear from the Near Eastern Highlands", PLoS ONE 5(6) (2010) e10984.

doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0010984

Abstract:

In 2008, a well preserved and complete shoe was recovered at the base of a Chalcolithic pit in the cave of Areni-1, Armenia. Here, we discuss the chronology of this find, its archaeological context and its relevance to the study of the evolution of footwear. Two leather samples and one grass sample from the shoe were dated at the Oxford Radiocarbon Accelerator Unit (ORAU). A third leather sample was dated at the University of California-Irvine Accelerator Mass Spectrometry Facility (UCIAMS). The R_Combine function for the three leather samples provides a date range of 3627–3377 Cal BC (95.4% confidence interval) and the calibrated range for the straw is contemporaneous (3627–3377 Cal BC). The shoe was stuffed with loose, unfastened grass (Poaceae) without clear orientation which was more than likely used to maintain the shape of the shoe and/or prepare it for storage. The shoe is 24.5 cm long (European size 37), 7.6 to 10 cm wide, and was made from a single piece of leather that wrapped around the foot. It was worn and shaped to the wearer's right foot, particularly around the heel and hallux where the highest pressure is exerted in normal gait. The Chalcolithic shoe provides solid evidence for the use of footwear among Old World populations at least since the Chalcolithic. Other 4^th millennium discoveries of shoes (Italian and Swiss Alps), and sandals (Southern Israel) indicate that more than one type of footwear existed during the 4^th millennium BC, and that we should expect to discover more regional variations in the manufacturing and style of shoes where preservation conditions permit.

Leather panel, c.1885 by Jacques Dulud, Victoria & Albert Museum

"The beginnings of leather chemistry" by Seymour-Jones (1927)

Seymour-Jones, F. L.; "The beginnings of leather chemistry", Journal of Chemical Education 4(7) (1927) 831-835

DOI: 10.1021/ed004p831 (restricted access)

"Parchment ageing study: new methods based on thermal transport and shrinkage analysis" by Riccardi et al (2010)

Riccardi, A.; Mercuri, F.; Paoloni, S.; Zammit, U.; Marinelli, M.; Scudieri, F.; ”Parchment ageing study: new methods based on thermal transport and shrinkage analysis”, e-Preservation Science 7 (2010) 87-95
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Abstract:  

The structure of the parchment and its preservation state have been studied by means of novel methods based on the analysis of the heat diffusion and shrinkage activity. Investigations have been performed on modern, inked and non-inked, parchment artificially aged in different conditions, as well as on modern non-aged and historical parchment samples. By means of the infrared thermography, the thermal diffusivity D has been measured along different directions, perpendicular and parallel to the parchment leaf plane respectively, in order to characterize its anisotropy and the way it depends on ageing. Thermographic investigations have also enabled the analysis of extended micro damages induced in the parchment layered structure by the combined effect of ink and ageing. Finally, quantitative information on the degradation induced by artificially ageing have been obtained by the analysis of the hydrothermal shrinkage activity of the parchment fibres by means of a new method based on light transmission measurements.

"Autoxidation of lipids in parchment" by Strlič et al (2009)

Strlič, M.; Kralj Cigić, I.; Rabin, I.; Kolar, J.; Pihlar, B.; Cassar, M.; “Autoxidation of lipids in parchment”, Polymer Degradation Stability 94 (6) (2009) 886-890
DOI: 10.1016/j.polymdegradstab.2009.03.003

Abstract:

Historic parchment is a macromolecular material, which is complex due to its natural origin, inhomogeneity of the skin structure, unknown environmental history and potential localised degradation. Most research into its stability has so far focussed on thermal and structural methods of analyses. Using gas chromatographic analysis of the atmosphere surrounding parchment during oxidation, we provide the experimental evidence on the production of volatile aldehydes, which can be the products of lipid autoxidation. Oxidation of parchment with different aldehyde emissions was additionally followed in situ using chemiluminometry and the same techniques were used to evaluate the oxidation of differently delipidised parchment. It was shown that the production of peroxides and the emission of aldehydes from the material decrease with lower lipid content. Building on this evidence, we can conclude that the presence of lipids (either initially present in the skin or resulting from conservation intervention) leads to oxidative degradation of collagen and that the non-destructive analysis of the emission of volatiles could be used as a quick tool for evaluation of parchment stability.

Shield, Kenya or Tanzania, The Met Museum of Art

"Shield [Kenya or Tanzania; Maasai people] (1978.412.644)". In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000-. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/works-of-art/1978.412.644 (October 2006)

The manufature of leather by Davis (1885)

Davis, C. T.; The manufacture of leather: being a description of all of the processes for the tanning, tawing, currying, finishing, Carey Baird, Philadelphia (1885)
URL (Internet Archive)

From the preface:

Considering the importance of the leather industry, it seems strange that up to the present time it should in technical literature have been so much neglected. There is not in England nor is there in America a single current book broadly treating all the branches of this subject, and the object of the present volume is fully to explain the details of manufacturing all kinds of leather in common use, and produced from hides and skins by the agency of the usual tanning substances. The author has not been satisfied to make use of the matter found in obsolete books, but has preferred to present a view of the state of the art as it to-day exists in the United States. The tools, machines, and in fact nearly all the mechanical appliances illustrated in the present treatise are of American origin, and in common use in the numerous tanneries and leather-finishing shops of the country.

The collection, compilation, and collation of the vast amount of technical and detailed information attainable relating to the various processes, and to the construction of the numerous machines herein described, have required almost herculean labor. But the work has been greatly aided by many of the leading tanners and curriers of the United States, who have not only placed at the author's disposal every opportunity for personal observation, but have promptly and courteously responded to his letters when containing requests for information. It is doubtful if such facilities as have been extended to him would be granted to a like professional writer on technical subjects in any other country in the world.

"Eastern and western influences on Hungarian footwear of the 13-17th centuries" by Kissné Bendefy (2009)

Kissné Bendefy, M.; "Eastern and Western influences on Hungarian footwear of the thirteenth-seventeenth centuries", in I. Éri (ed.), Conserving textiles: Studies in Honour of Ágnes Timár-Balázsy, ICCROM Conservation Studies 7 (2009) 87-96
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From the text:

This paper summarizes some of the conclusions from our study of the type and technology of Hungarian footwear between the 13th and 17th centuries; this study has been undertaken for nearly ten years by the author and Judit Bakay-Perjés. Our research has been based on finds from archaeological excavations of Hungarian sites and on objects that were taken into historic collections; most of the finds are complete shoes and boots, and are primarily men's footwear.

"Sir Humphry Davy and the leather industry" by Spiers (1968)

Spiers, C. H.; “Sir Humphry Davy and the leather industry'”, Annals of Science 24 (2) (1968) 99-113

DOI:10.1080/00033796800200071 (restricted access) 

Excerpt from the text:

A somewhat strange feature of the life of Sir Humphry Davy is that during the period roughly between July 1801 and December 1802, when he was intensely interested in galvanism and inorganic chemistry and was at the commencement of a brilliant career, he was caused to divert a considerable part of his time and energies to the organic fields represented by vegetable tanning materials and leather manufacture. This diversion is certainly of great significance to leather chemists, not merely on account of the undoubted merits of his contributions in these fields, but also because they make him a claimant for the title of the first leather chemist.

Moreover, he is the most eminent chemist ever directly to have concerned himself with this ancient industry.

Water-bag, Jordan, 1970, The British Museum

AN250851001
© The Trustees of the British Museum

Water-bag; made of animal skin; entire skin of animal, with back legs tied together and twisted fibre rope tied to legs; front legs held shut with fibre rope which is tied to other rope for carrying strap; head opening held shut with horse hair rope.

Japanese tobacco pouch and pipe, 18th century, The Met Museum of Art

 

"Tobacco pouch and pipe [Japanese] (14.40.843a,b)". In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/works-of-art/14.40.843a,b (November 2009)

The taxidermist's manual by Brown (1856)

Brown, T.; The taxidermist's manual: or, The art of collecting, preparing, and preserving objects of natural history designed for the use of travellers, conservators of museum and private collectors, A. Fullarton & Co., Edinburgh (1856)
URL (Google Books)

The Museum of Leathercraft, Northampton (UK)

The Museum of Leathercraft, Northampton

http://www.museumofleathercraft.org/ 

The Museum of Leathercraft is internationally acknowledged as having one of the finest collections of leather artifacts in the world. Founded in 1946 by John Waterer and Claude Spiers, the museum now has over 5000 leather objects, examples of ingenuity, creativity and superb craftsmanship that serve to show the importance of leather as a raw material across the centuries.

(Text from the website)

"La chasuble en cuir de Saint Bertrand de Comminges" par Aribaud (1997)

Aribaud, Christine; “La chasuble en cuir de Saint Bertrand de Comminges“, Mémoires de la Société Archéologique du Midi de la France, t. LVII (1997) 143-156

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Sommaire:

La chasuble en cuir doré de la cathédrale de Saint-Bertrand-de-Comminges est, selon la tradition, héritée de Donadieu de Griet, évêque de Comminges de 1625 à 1635. Or son étude stylistique et technique démontre qu'elle se rattache à un ensemble peu connu de vêtements liturgiques en cuir, probablement produits en Allemagne du sud dans le premier tiers du XVIIIe siècle.

Head of Christ by Petrus Christus, ca.1445, The Met Museum of Art

"Petrus Christus: Head of Christ (60.71.1)". In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/works-of-art/60.71.1 (December 2008)

"A combined Raman microscopy, XRF and SEM–EDX study of three valuable objects..." by Chaplin et al (2010)

Chaplin, T. D.; Clark, R. J. H.; Martinón-Torres, M.; “A combined Raman microscopy, XRF and SEM–EDX study of three valuable objects – A large painted leather screen and two illuminated title pages in 17th century books of ordinances of the Worshipful Company of Barbers, London”, Journal of Molecular Structure 976 (1-3) (2010) 350-359 

doi:10.1016/j.molstruc.2010.03.042 (restricted access)
 

Abstract:

Raman microscopy has been used to identify the pigments decorating three valuable items owned by the Worshipful Company of Barbers (established in 1308 in London), one being a large leather screen dating to before 1712, the other two being illuminated title pages of books of ordinances of the Company dating to 1605 and 1658. Pigments which could not be fully characterised by this technique (particularly the green paints) have also been subject to XRF or SEM–EDX analysis. The combined analytical approach has shown that the pigments identified on all three items are typical of those in use as artists’ pigments in the 17th C and include azurite, indigo, vermilion, red lead, pink and yellow lakes, verdigris, lead white, calcite (and chalk), gypsum, carbon-based black, and gold and silver leaf. However in the case of the screen alone, restoration in the 1980s has been carried out with different pigments – haematite, phthalocyanine green, rutile, and a mixture of azurite, malachite and barium sulfate. This work constitutes the first in-depth study of painted leatherwork and demonstrates that the palette used for this purpose is similar to that used on other works of art of the same date. It has also allowed the original colour schemes of the decorations to be determined where pigment degradation has occurred. The combined analysis has also provided a more complete understanding of the materials used for, or on, objects to which access is limited.

"Artes do couro no Sul Peninsular" por Pereira (1994)

Pereira, Franklin; "Artes do couro no Sul Peninsular", A Cidade de Évora: Boletim de Cultura da Câmara Municipal 1, II Serie, (1994-1995) 371-395
URL

Resumo:

Franklin Pereira quer mostrar com este artigo os movimentos culturais e a versatilidade estética da arte do couro, hoje entendida como matéria para sapatos, blusões da moda e apetrechos utilitários, ao longo da história.

O uso do couro, tanto a nível popular como artístico, atingiu enorme fama e qualidade nos reinos do Al-Andalus. O autor inicia aqui a sua breve história da arte de trabalhar o couro no Sul Peninsular, terminando no século XVIII.